1. Common ecological management goals should be socially defined through a collaborative vision process that involves all interested participants and that incorporates ecological, economic, and social considerations.
2. Given that most ecosystems and watersheds transcend conventional geopolitical boundaries, ecological management requires coordination among governmental entities as well as collaboration with other interested parties.
3. Ecological management policies and decisions should be based upon integrated and comprehensive scientific information that addresses multiple rather than single resources.
4. Ecological management seeks to maintain and restore biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.
5. Ecological management involves management at large spatial and temporal scales that correspond to ecosystems and watersheds.
6. Given the finite nature of public funds and other resources, ecological management enable agencies to engage in careful targeting to select achievable solutions and to allocate resources efficiently.
7. Ecological management requires an iterative, adaptive management approach to account for changing goals and values and new scientific information concerning ecological conditions.

Ecological Risk Assessment :
Ecological risk assessment is the evaluation of the probability and resulting adverse effects on the non-human population or the ecological system in a particular region or area from an environmental hazard or stressor (non-endemic events or chemicals which, when introduced to an environment or ecological system, have the potential to accumulate, biomagnify, and genetically mutate species, poison, or in any other way impact a species or ecological system).

Epidemiological Studies :
EPIDEMIOLOGY:
Def : Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease frequency in man.
Two main areas of investigation are indicated in this definition; - the study of the distribution of diseases and the search for the determinants of the observed distribution. The first area, describing the distribution of health status in terms of age, sex, race, geography etc., might be considered an extension of the discipline of demography to health and disease. The second area involves explanation of the patterns of distribution of a disease in terms of causal factors. The special contribution of epidemiology is its use of knowledge of the frequency and distribution of disease in population.

Green Belt Development
With rapid industrialization and consequent deleterious impact of pollutants on environment, values of environmental protection offered by tress are becoming cleat. Trees are very suitable for detecting, recognizing and monitoring air pollution effects. Monitoring of biological effects of air pollutant by the use of plants as indicators has been applied on local, regional and national scale. Trees function as sinks of air pollutants, besides their bio-esthetical values, owing to its large surface are. Annual need of oxygen for one person is met by 150 m2 of leaf surface i.e., 30-40 m2 of greenery. So, it is necessary to develop green belt in and around the polluted site with suitable species to combat the air pollution effectively.The green belt development not only functions as foreground and background landscape features resulting in harmonizing and amalgamating the physical structures of the plant with surrounding environment, but also acts as pollution sink.In addition to augmenting present vegetation, it will also check soil erosion, make the eco-system more complex and functionally more stable and make the climate more conductive. 
 

Phytomonitoring of Air Pollution :
The living organisms can serve as excellent quantitative as well as qualitative indices of air pollution. Plants and animals are continuously exposed and can act as long-term monitories that integrate all environmental milieus. They can show the pathway and points of accumulation of pollutants in ecological systems. Their use can remove the extremely difficult task of relating physical and chemical measurements to biological effects. Plants are more sensitive to air pollution than those of animals including man. Many plants can act as early warning sentinels for particular pollutants. By looking at certain plants, it is possible not only to identify the presence of certain pollutants in a given area but also to specific plant species in the eco-system and significance of the particular response to the pollutant is referred to as bio-indicator. A bio-indicator integrates its response to environment through time and reacts to all synergistic and antagonistic effects of combined pollutants and hence acts as efficient full time monitor. Plants have been extensively used in monitoring program as indicators of air pollution. Its usefulness in the capacity is based primarily on the sensitivity of the selected species for specific or class of pollutants. Among the effects observe, foliar symptoms have proved to be highly sensitive criteria for air pollution (Treshow 1965).

Air pollution by particulate matter is attributed to natural conditions as well as to industrial and other activities including cement plants, power generations plants, mining activity, iron and steel manufacturing units, transportation, building construction, stone crushing, forest product processing and agriculture operations. The particle let out into the atmosphere, depending on their size and weight, may remain in air for varying lengths of time. Those particles larger than 10? in size, settle under forces of gravity on surfaces of vegetation and soil but the smaller ones remain in suspended in air for longer periods of time and in accordance with gas laws get distributed and diffused by wind motion and eddy currents. The suspended particulate matter gradually gathers mass through agglomeration, coalescence and water vapour deposition and eventually settles down on surfaces or may be washed down by rain.

Phytoremediation :
A cost-effective remediation method.
Phytoremediatin refers to the use of plants for cleaning up contaminants in soil, groundwater, surface water and air. It encompasses:
Phytoextraction or Phytoconcentration, where the contaminant is concentrated in the roots, stem and foliage of the plant.
Phytodegradation, where plant enzymes help catalyze breakdown of the contaminant molecule.
Rhizosherebiodegradation, where plant roots release nutrients to microorganisms which are active in biodegradation of the contaminant molecule.
Volatilisation, where organics are transpired through plant leaves.
Stabilisation, where the plant converts the contaminant into a form which is not bioavailable, or the plant prevents the spreading of a contaminant plume.
The principal application of phytoremediation is for lightly contaminated soils, sludges and waters where the material to be treated is at a shallow or medium depth and the area to be treated is large, so that agronomic techniques are economical and applicable for both planting and harvesting. In addition, the site owner must be prepared to accept a longer remediation period.
 

Advantages:
It is low cost compared to current “mechanical” methods for soil remediation.
It is passive and solar driven.
It is faster than natural attenuation.
The amount of contaminated material going to landfills can be greatly reduced.
Energy can be recovered from controlled combustion of harvested biomass.
It is low impact and public acceptance is expected to be high.
The foregoing principles of waste treatment and recycling can be implemented by using natural treatment systems such as waste stabilization ponds (WSPs), floating aquatic weed ponds – for example, water hyacinth ponds (WHPs), and constructed wetlands. The major advantage of using these natural systems for pollution control and resource recovery are: inexpensive operation and maintenance; less need for continuous and skilled supervision; and, production of protein or plant biomass by-products.
 
WSPs refer to relatively shallow basins of water utilising the natural phenomena of algae-bacteria symbiosis for waste degradation. Suspended bacteria to oxidize the incoming organic waste use oxygen produced by the photosynthetic activity of the algal cells. In turn, the bacteria provide CO2 and inorganic nutrients required bye the algae for their photosynthetic activities. WSPs have been used to treat domestic and industrial wastewaters, polish secondary treatment effluent, and, in commercial production of algal cells or fish.
 
The main purpose for using floating aquatic weed ponds, such as WHPs, in pollution control are waste stabilization and nutrient removal, and conversion of harvesting of weeds to productive uses. The roots and the stems of aquatic plants provide a medium for bio-film bacteria to attach and grow while stabilizing wastes. The presence and subsequent harvesting of weeds in the aquatic medium enable nutrient removal from the waste water. Even though the stabilization of waste is a slow process in aquatic systems, removal efficiency is high and can produce an effluent superior or comparable to that of other treatment systems. The major applications of WHP systems are: Polishing secondary effluent, improving raw water quality, treating storm water run-off, and other purposes.
 
Constructed wetlands are similar to floating weed systems, but a bed of solid media, such as gravel, sand or soil, provides a watertight basin for the growth of emergent weeds. Free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland systems consist of parallel basins or channels with relatively impermeable bottoms and soil and rock layers to support emergent vegetation. The water depth is maintained at 0.1-0.6 m above the soil surface (see figure below). Subsurface flow (SF) systems consists of channels or trenches with impermeable bottoms and soil and rock layers support emergent vegetation, but the water depth is maintained at or below the soil surface. The reactions responsible for organic matter degradation are similar to those of aquatic weeds ponds, but a wetland bed media will assist in the filtration and adsorption of solids and other pollutant compounds. Hence, effluent of a well-operated, constructed wetland is normally of high quality, suitable for discharge or further reuse. Constructed –wetland systems have been used for domestic and industrial waste water treatment, sewage dewatering and treatment, polishing secondary effluent, storm water management, raw water quality improvement, and producing plant biomass.

Composting

A composting Introduction
Composting is the decomposition of plant remains and other once-living materials to make an earthy, dark, crumbly substance that is excellent for adding to houseplants or enriching garden soil. It is the way to recycle your yard and kitchen wastes, and is a critical step in reducing the volume of garbage needlessly sent to landfills for disposal. It's easy to learn how to compost. Composting can even be done, cleanly and unobtrusively, indoors in apartment buildings and condominiums!

Composting is not a new idea. In the natural world, composting is what happens as leaves pile up on the forest floor and begin to decay. Eventually, the rotting leaves are returned to the soil, where living roots can finish the recycling process by reclaiming the nutrients from the decomposed leaves. Composting may be at the root of agriculture as well. Some scientists have speculated that as early peoples dumped food wastes in piles near their camps, the wastes rotted and were terrific habitat for the seeds of any food plants that sprouted there. Perhaps people began to recognize that dump heaps were good places for food crops to grow, and began to put seeds there intentionally.

Today, the use of composting to turn organic wastes into a valuable resource is expanding rapidly in the United States and in other countries, as landfill space becomes scarce and expensive, and as people become more aware of the impacts they have on the environment. In ten years, composting will probably be as commonplace as recycling aluminum cans is today, both in the backyard and on an industrial scale. Many countries have stated goals or legislative mandates to drastically reduce the volume of waste being sent to landfills. Utilizing yard and kitchen wastes (which make up about 30% of the waste stream in the country is a big part of the plan to minimize waste overall.

You can contribute to the 'composting revolution' by composting your own yard and kitchen wastes at home. If you have a large yard, you might prefer the ease of composting in a three-bin system out by the back fence. Apartment and condominium residents can get into the act with indoor 'vermicomposting' -- using earthworms to recycle kitchen wastes (offices can even recycle coffee grounds and tea bags with vermicomposting). Cities and towns can promote composting through home composting education efforts and the collection of yard wastes for large-scale composting. Whatever your style of composting, there's plenty of room to get involved!

COMPOSTING FUNDAMENTALS
Proper composting requires the following conditions:
1. Air : The microbes that turn your yard and kitchen waste into compost are "aerobes," which means that they need air to live (and to do their work to make compost). Compost piles should allow plenty of air into them. This is usually accomplished by using some kind of "bulky" ingredients such as straw, old weeds (without seeds!), etc. If a pile settles under its own weight and excludes air, it can also be "turned" to get more air into the pile. Turning is the process of dismantling a pile and rebuilding it in a fluffed-up state - the fluffiness allows air into the pile. Some people turn their piles several times as the piles rot, to keep the pile as aerobic as possible.
2. Moisture: The microbes need moisture to live (just like we would die without water). Ideally, the pile should be "as wet as a wrung-out sponge." At this ideal moisture level, the ingredients are full of water, but there is still air getting into the pile. And, the microscopic film of water on the surface of each particle in the pile is an ideal medium through which the microbes can spread as they do their work. A pile that is too wet (wetter than a wrung-out sponge) will collapse under its own weight, excluding air and becoming smelly. A pile that is too dry cannot support a healthy population of microbes, and so the rate of decomposition is drastically reduced. If a pile is too wet, turning it and/or adding drier ingredients can help balance the amount of water in the pile. A pile that is too dry should be turned, and water sprayed on the ingredients as they are turned and rebuilt into a new pile.
3. Warmth: Active decomposition happens at average outdoor summer temperatures. While higher pile temperatures will speed the rate of decomposition, IT ISN'T TRUE THAT COMPOST PILES HAVE TO BE HOT TO DECOMPOSE PROPERLY. Only the largest piles will remain active through Colorado winters, but even small piles will decompose during the warm season - as long as they are moist, aerobic, etc.
If you want to build a hot pile, you'll need to have a cubic yard or more of material to build the pile with all at once. You'll also need to make sure that you have a good ingredient mix, proper moisture, etc. Not enough ingredients to build a hot pile? No problem ... build a cold pile.
There are many advantages of hot compost piles, but there are advantages of cold piles as well. Hot piles decompose more quickly, and may kill weed seeds and other diseases. Cold piles, on the other hand are often more convenient for backyard gardeners, who use an 'add ingredients as you get them' approach.
4. The proper ingredient mixture : In broad terms, there are two major kinds of food that composting microbes need:
'Browns' are dry and dead plant materials such as straw, dry brown weeds, autumn leaves, and wood chips or sawdust. These materials are mostly made of chemicals that are just long chains of sugar molecules linked together. As such, these items are a source of energy for the compost microbes. Because they tend to be dry, browns often need to be moistened before they are put into a compost system.
'Greens' are fresh (and often green) plant materials such as green weeds from the garden, kitchen fruit and vegetable scraps, green leaves, coffee grounds and tea bags, fresh horse manure, etc. Compared to browns, greens have more nitrogen in them. Nitrogen is a critical element in amino acids and proteins, and can be thought of as a protein source for the billions of multiplying microbes.
A good mix of browns and greens is the best nutritional balance for the microbes. Half-and-half of greens and browns, or two parts browns to one part greens works pretty well. This mix also helps out with the aeration and amount of water in the pile. Browns, for instance, tend to be bulky and promote good aeration. Greens, on the other hand, are typically high in moisture, and balance out the dry nature of the browns.

Rain Water Harvesting :

Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. The techniques usually found in Asia and Africa arise from practices employed by ancient civilizations within these regions and still serve as a major source of drinking water supply in rural areas. Commonly used systems are constructed of three principal components; namely, the catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance system.
Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate. Local people can be easily trained to implement such technologies, and construction materials are also readily available. Rainwater harvesting is convenient in the sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full control of their own systems, which greatly reduces operation and maintenance problems. Running costs, also, are almost negligible. Water collected from roof catchments usually is of acceptable quality for domestic purposes. As it is collected using existing structures not specially constructed for the purpose, rainwater harvesting has few negative environmental impacts compared to other water supply project technologies. Although regional or other local factors can modify the local climatic conditions, rainwater can be a continuous source of water supply for both the rural and poor. Depending upon household capacity and needs, both the water collection and storage capacity may be increased as needed within the available catchment area.

Geographic Information Systems :
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are computer systems used for storing, retrieving, and displaying spatial data. GIS is an important tool in considering the spatial nature of many environmental and socio-economic impacts and even acts as an integrating framework for the whole impact assessment process.

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